Resources Explotation

PHOSPHATE

Bou Craa and the Global Phosphate Supply Chain

Phosphate is Western Sahara's most established large-scale extractive industry and one of the territory's most internationally significant natural resources.

The principal deposit is located at Bou Craa, approximately 100 kilometres southeast of El Aaiún. Mining began during the Spanish colonial period and has continued under Moroccan control since the territory came under Moroccan occupation.

Today, the mine is operated by Phosboucraa, a subsidiary of Morocco's state-owned OCP Group.

The Bou Craa deposit

Bou Craa contains phosphate rock used primarily as a raw material for fertilizer production. The deposit is extracted through open-pit mining and transported to the Atlantic coast through a dedicated conveyor system extending for approximately 100 kilometres.

According to figures cited by Western Sahara Resource Watch from OCP, Bou Craa has an estimated production capacity of approximately 2.6 million tonnes of phosphate rock per year, with estimated reserves of around 500 million tonnes.

The phosphate is transported to the coast and exported by sea to international markets.

International trade

Phosphate rock from Western Sahara enters global agricultural supply chains. It can be processed into phosphoric acid and phosphate fertilizers, meaning that the resource extracted from Bou Craa can ultimately become part of agricultural production far beyond North Africa.

WSRW's monitoring of 2025 exports recorded approximately 2.02 million tonnes of phosphate rock shipped from Western Sahara, transported on 36 vessels. The organization estimated the value of these exports at approximately US$376.5 million.

This makes Bou Craa a direct link between Western Sahara's natural resources and the global fertilizer industry.

The conveyor belt

One of the most distinctive features of the Bou Craa operation is its long conveyor system connecting the mine to the coast.

The conveyor transports extracted phosphate from the mine to the port area near El Aaiún, where it can be loaded onto vessels for export.

The infrastructure therefore forms part of the resource-exploitation chain:

Mine → Conveyor → Port → Vessel → International buyer → Fertilizer industry

Environmental concerns

Phosphate mining transforms the landscape through excavation, removal of overburden, waste generation and associated industrial infrastructure.

Potential environmental concerns include:

· Land disturbance

· Dust emissions

· Mining waste

· Habitat transformation

· Energy consumption

· Transport impacts

· Port-related impacts

· Long-term landscape alteration

The environmental footprint must therefore be assessed across the entire production system rather than considering the mine in isolation.

The legal dimension

Phosphate exploitation is also at the centre of the wider legal debate surrounding natural resources in Western Sahara.

The UN Legal Counsel's 2002 opinion concerning mineral exploration contracts remains an important reference in discussions about resource activities in the territory. The opinion concluded that exploration and exploitation could only proceed consistently with international law if activities were conducted for the benefit of, and in accordance with the wishes and interests of, the people of Western Sahara.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture may appear incompatible with the extremely arid environment of Western Sahara, yet intensive agricultural production has expanded substantially, particularly in the Dakhla region.

Large greenhouse farms produce high-value crops, particularly for markets outside the territory.

What is produced?

Major agricultural products include:

· Tomatoes

· Watermelons

· Melons

· Other horticultural crops

The use of greenhouses allows producers to control temperature, humidity and growing conditions while producing crops throughout much of the year.

Dakhla's agricultural expansion

The Dakhla region has become a centre of export-oriented intensive agriculture.

Companies involved in agricultural production in the region have included major operators such as Azura, Les Domaines Agricoles, Soprofel and Rosaflor.

Agricultural expansion has transformed areas that were previously dominated by desert landscapes and traditional pastoral activities.

Water: the central issue

The most important environmental question surrounding agriculture is water.

Agriculture requires reliable water supplies, yet Western Sahara has extremely limited freshwater resources.

Historically, intensive agriculture around Dakhla has relied substantially on groundwater.

This creates a fundamental sustainability challenge:

If groundwater is extracted faster than natural recharge, the resource becomes progressively depleted.

Desalination

Desalination is increasingly being introduced as an alternative source of irrigation water.

The Dakhla desalination project is linked to plans for a major agricultural expansion.

In 2025, ENGIE announced that its wind-powered desalination project had begun generating electricity, with the facility intended to provide water for irrigation associated with more than 5,000 hectares of agricultural land.

The development represents a new model:

Wind energy → Desalination → Irrigation → Intensive agriculture → Export

International markets

Agricultural products from Western Sahara are integrated into Moroccan commercial networks and exported internationally.

This has generated significant legal controversy concerning the geographical origin of products.

The CJEU's 2024 jurisprudence reaffirmed the distinct status of Western Sahara under EU law. The Court has also addressed the requirement that products harvested in Western Sahara be identified by their appropriate territorial provenance rather than simply being presented as products of Morocco.

Environmental concerns

SONREP identifies several environmental risks:

· Groundwater depletion

· Salinization

· Soil degradation

· Greenhouse waste

· Plastic pollution

· Energy consumption

· Desalination impacts

· Land conversion

· Pressure on ecosystems

MINERALS

Oil and gas have been explored in Western Sahara and its offshore areas for decades.

Although no large commercial oil or gas production has been established, exploration has involved international companies and has included seismic surveys and offshore drilling.

Early exploration

The legal controversy surrounding hydrocarbon exploration became particularly visible in the early 2000s when Morocco granted offshore exploration arrangements to international companies.

The 2002 UN Legal Counsel opinion became a central legal reference for the question of resource exploration in Western Sahara.

Kosmos Energy

US company Kosmos Energy conducted offshore exploration in the Boujdour area and drilled exploration wells.

The exploration did not establish a commercially viable discovery, and Kosmos subsequently withdrew.

Renewed interest

Hydrocarbon exploration has not disappeared completely.

New exploration arrangements involving companies such as NewMed Energy and Morocco's ONHYM have maintained attention on the offshore potential.

Environmental risks

Offshore hydrocarbon exploration can involve:

· Seismic surveys

· Drilling

· Vessel activity

· Seabed disturbance

· Risk of spills

· Noise pollution

Impacts on marine mammals and fisheries

OIL & GAS

Mineral Exploration Beyond Phosphate

Western Sahara possesses a broader geological potential that extends beyond its established phosphate industry.

Exploration has targeted or identified indications of:

· Iron

· Gold

· Uranium

· Diamonds

· Niobium

· Other strategic and industrial minerals

However, SONREP distinguishes carefully between geological indications, exploration activity and commercially proven reserves.

A mineral being identified during geological exploration does not automatically mean that a commercially viable deposit exists.

Exploration itself matters

Mineral exploration can involve:

· Geological mapping

· Geophysical surveys

· Seismic work

· Sampling

· Drilling

· Test pits

· Exploration licences

These activities can precede commercial mining by many years.

Corporate involvement

International companies have participated in exploration activities in Western Sahara.

ONHYM, Morocco's state-owned mining and hydrocarbons agency, has played a role in geological exploration.

International companies have also conducted exploration activities for minerals including gold, uranium and diamonds.

LIVESTOCK & PASTORAL RESOURCES

The Atlantic coast of Western Sahara contains some of the most productive fishing grounds in northwest Africa. The region benefits from the Canary Current upwelling system, which brings nutrient-rich deep water toward the surface and supports exceptionally productive marine ecosystems.

For decades, these waters have been at the centre of a large fishing economy involving industrial fleets, artisanal fisheries, fish-processing plants, fishmeal and fish-oil factories, aquaculture operations and international seafood supply chains.

Fisheries are therefore not simply a local economic activity. They constitute one of the principal resource-extraction sectors operating in Western Sahara and one of the most important links between the territory and international markets.

The scale of the resource

The importance of Western Sahara to Morocco's fishing economy is particularly striking.

According to Moroccan government statistics analysed by Western Sahara Resource Watch, the coastal area of Western Sahara accounted for more than 73% of Morocco's coastal and artisanal catches by quantity in 2024, and approximately 61.5% of the national catch by value.

These figures demonstrate the exceptional concentration of Morocco's fisheries activity in the waters and ports of Western Sahara.

Major fishing centres include:

Dakhla

El Aaiún

Boujdour

Dakhla in particular has developed into a major centre for fishing, seafood processing and aquaculture.

Species and marine resources

The fisheries target a wide range of species, including:

• Sardines and other small pelagic fish

• Mackerel

• Cephalopods

• Octopus

• Demersal fish

• Crustaceans

• Shellfish

Small pelagic fish are particularly important because they support both direct human consumption and industrial processing.

Octopus is among the most commercially valuable fisheries products associated with Dakhla and the surrounding waters.

From ocean to international market

The fisheries supply chain extends far beyond the point where fish are caught.

A typical chain may involve:

Fishing vessel → landing port → auction/first sale → processing → freezing or fishmeal/fish oil → transport → exporter → international market

This means that the economic footprint of fisheries includes not only fishing vessels but also:

• Port operators

• Processing companies

• Cold-storage facilities

• Transport companies

• Shipping companies

• Exporters

• International seafood buyers

• Certification organisations

Fishmeal and fish oil

A significant part of the marine resource is processed into fishmeal and fish oil rather than being sold directly as seafood.

Fishmeal and fish oil are used in:

• Aquaculture feed

• Animal feed

• Food industries

• Nutritional products

• Industrial applications

The concentration of processing facilities in Western Sahara is significant. WSRW reports that 13 of Morocco's 27 fishmeal and fish-oil producers in 2024 were located in Western Sahara.

This means that resource extraction is accompanied by an increasingly developed processing industry inside the territory.

Aquaculture and oyster farming

Aquaculture has become another major component of the marine economy, particularly around Dakhla.

Oyster farming has expanded rapidly over the past decade and is promoted by Moroccan authorities as part of the development of a “blue economy.”

According to Moroccan government data cited by WSRW, approximately 88% of Morocco's oyster production in 2024 originated from Dakhla.

The expansion of aquaculture introduces a different form of resource use: instead of harvesting wild stocks, companies cultivate marine organisms in coastal waters. This requires infrastructure, feed, equipment, transport and access to suitable marine areas.

Foreign involvement

The exploitation of Western Sahara's fisheries has historically involved not only Moroccan operators but also foreign interests.

The European Union fleet operated in the waters concerned under the EU–Morocco fisheries framework until the legal framework was overturned by the Court of Justice of the European Union.

Other international actors have also participated through commercial arrangements with Moroccan entities.

This has created a broad international supply chain connecting Western Saharan fisheries to markets in Europe and elsewhere.

Environmental pressure

The productivity of the Atlantic ecosystem does not mean that fish stocks are unlimited.

Intensive exploitation can produce:

• Overfishing

• Declining stocks

• Changes in marine food webs

• Bycatch

• Damage to marine habitats

• Pressure on spawning grounds

• Increased competition between industrial and small-scale fishing

Aquaculture and processing can generate additional environmental pressures through waste, wastewater, energy consumption and coastal infrastructure.

Climate change introduces further uncertainty through changes in ocean temperature, currents, productivity and species distribution.

Fisheries and international law

Fisheries are one of the sectors most directly affected by the legal status of Western Sahara.

The Court of Justice of the European Union has repeatedly distinguished Western Sahara from Morocco for the purposes of EU law. In its 4 October 2024 judgments, the Court addressed the application of EU–Morocco agreements to Western Sahara and the requirement of the consent of the people of the territory.

For SONREP, this means that fisheries must be examined simultaneously as:

A natural resource

An economic sector

An environmental issue

An international trade issue

A question of international law and self-determination

FISHERIES & MARINE RESOURCESFISHERIES & MARINE RESOURCES

Pastoralism and the Sahrawi Environment

Livestock has traditionally been central to Sahrawi livelihoods and desert adaptation.

Camels, sheep and goats are adapted to the region's harsh environmental conditions and have historically been managed through mobile pastoral systems.

Pastoral mobility

Traditional pastoralism depends on mobility.

Communities move according to:

· Rainfall

· Pasture availability

· Water

· Seasonal conditions

This mobility is essential for sustainable use of fragile desert ecosystems.

Environmental pressures

Pastoral systems face increasing pressure from:

· Climate change

· Drought

· Desertification

· Water scarcity

· Land fragmentation

· Roads

· Industrial development

· Military infrastructure

· Restricted access to grazing areas

The military berm

The Moroccan military berm divides Western Sahara and has contributed to the fragmentation of land and movement.

Mine contamination and restricted access can affect:

· Pastoral routes

· Livestock

· Wildlife

· Access to water

· Traditional land use

RENEWABLE ENERGY

Wind, Solar and the Transformation of Western Sahara's Energy Landscape

Western Sahara possesses exceptional conditions for renewable-energy production.

Its long Atlantic coastline provides strong and consistent winds, while its desert environment offers high solar irradiation and vast areas of open land.

These characteristics have made the territory an increasingly important location for Morocco's renewable-energy strategy.

Wind and solar projects are no longer isolated electricity-generation projects. They are becoming part of a much larger industrial system involving:

Electricity → Mining → Desalination → Agriculture → Hydrogen → Ammonia → Export

This makes renewable energy one of the most strategically important areas of resource development in Western Sahara.

1- Wind energy

Wind power has expanded particularly rapidly around Boujdour, El Aaiún and Dakhla.

One of the largest developments is the Aftissat wind complex, south of Boujdour.

In August 2026, Nareva, the Moroccan energy company owned by the royal holding company Al Mada, listed four Aftissat phases with a combined installed capacity of 550 MW and projected annual electricity production of almost 3,000 GWh, The complex comprises 121 turbines.

The development is significant not simply because of its size but because it illustrates how Western Sahara is becoming integrated into Morocco's national energy system.

Additional wind projects are planned or under development, including:

Boujdour II

Tiskrad

Grad Jrad Laâyoune

Other projects around Dakhla and Laâyoune

Recent reporting identifies additional planned capacity amounting to hundreds of megawatts.

Solar energy

Solar energy has also been developed in Western Sahara.

Photovoltaic facilities include projects around:

· Laâyoune

· Boujdour

These installations form part of Morocco's wider renewable-energy programme.

Solar power is particularly significant because it can provide electricity to activities that are themselves resource-intensive, including water desalination, agriculture and future hydrogen production.

2- Energy for desalination

One of the clearest examples of the relationship between renewable energy and other forms of resource exploitation is the Dakhla desalination project.

In March 2025, ENGIE announced that its 60 MW Dakhla wind farm had begun producing electricity. The electricity is primarily intended to power desalination associated with the irrigation of more than 5,000 hectares of agricultural land.

This creates a direct chain:

Wind → Electricity → Desalination → Water → Agriculture → Export crops

The significance of this model extends beyond energy production. Renewable energy is actively enabling the transformation of desert land into industrial agricultural land.

Energy for phosphate mining

Renewable energy also supports existing extractive industries.

Western Sahara's electricity infrastructure supplies industrial activity, including phosphate mining and associated facilities.

This means that renewable-energy development should not be analysed independently from the wider resource economy.

The transmission network

Large-scale renewable generation requires large-scale transmission infrastructure.

In 2025, TAQA won a major energy infrastructure project involving approximately 1,200 MW of new wind capacity and a 1,400-kilometre high-voltage transmission line, according to WSRW's corporate monitoring.

Such projects illustrate the strategic importance of Western Sahara as an energy-production zone rather than simply a consumer market.

GREEN HYDROGEN

Western Sahara and the Emerging Hydrogen Economy

Green hydrogen is emerging as one of the most significant new areas of resource development.

Green hydrogen is produced by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis using electricity generated from renewable sources.

Western Sahara's combination of strong wind, high solar irradiation and proximity to Atlantic ports makes the territory attractive for hydrogen development.

The hydrogen chain

A large-scale green hydrogen system requires:

Wind + Solar → Electricity → Electrolysis → Hydrogen → Ammonia / derivatives → Export

Water is another essential component.

This makes hydrogen development directly connected to the question of water security.

Large-scale investment

Morocco launched its “Morocco Offer” for green hydrogen investment in 2024.

In 2025, Morocco selected several investors and consortia for projects with projected investments amounting to tens of billions of dollars.

Some of the proposed projects include land in Western Sahara.

Why this matters

Hydrogen development could transform Western Sahara from a territory supplying raw materials into a territory hosting increasingly complex industrial systems.

Potential activities include:

· Renewable-energy generation

· Electrolysis

· Desalination

· Hydrogen production

· Ammonia production

· Storage

· Ports

· Export infrastructure

Environmental questions

Green hydrogen can contribute to decarbonization, but its production requires significant infrastructure.

SONREP therefore monitors:

· Water demand

· Desalination

· Brine management

· Land use

· Energy demand

· Industrial emissions

· Infrastructure

· Export routes

The governance question

The development of hydrogen projects also raises questions regarding:

Land rights

Resource sovereignty

Consent

Corporate responsibility

Distribution of benefits

Environmental justice

SONREP therefore considers green hydrogen an emerging form of resource development requiring independent monitoring.

GREEN AMMONIA

From Hydrogen to Fertilizer and Energy Markets

Green ammonia is one of the most important potential applications of green hydrogen.

Ammonia is produced by combining hydrogen with nitrogen. When the hydrogen is produced using renewable electricity, the resulting product can be marketed as green ammonia.

It has potential applications in:

· Fertilizer production

· Shipping fuel

· Energy storage

· Industrial processes

· International energy trade

Why Western Sahara?

The territory's renewable-energy potential and access to Atlantic ports make it attractive for large-scale ammonia production and export.

Proposed projects combine:

Wind power + Solar power + Desalination + Hydrogen + Ammonia

Industrial transformation

This represents a potential transition from exporting raw natural resources toward exporting processed energy products.

However, it can also create new demands for land, water and infrastructure.

Example: ORNX

In 2026, the proposed ORNX green-ammonia project became the subject of international financing discussions.

The consortium involving Ortus Power Resources, Acciona and Nordex has proposed a large-scale project in Western Sahara.

The US Trade and Development Agency announced support for a front-end engineering and design study.

SAND

Western Sahara's Sand: From Desert and Coast to Foreign Construction

Sand is one of the most overlooked resources extracted from Western Sahara.

Unlike phosphate or fisheries, sand extraction may appear economically insignificant. However, the volume of material removed and the international supply chain connected to it make it an important resource issue.

Where does the sand go?

The most extensively documented destination is the Canary Islands.

Sand from Western Sahara has been transported by sea to the islands for:

· Construction

· Concrete production

· Beach nourishment

· Infrastructure projects

· Coastal development

The scale of exports

WSRW's 2025 investigation documented approximately 914,000 tonnes of sand exported from Western Sahara between 2020 and 2024, across 239 separate shipments. The Canary Islands were the principal destination.

This is not a symbolic trade.

It represents hundreds of thousands of tonnes of material physically removed from Western Sahara and incorporated into infrastructure elsewhere.

Artificial beaches: One of the most controversial uses is beach construction and nourishment.

Sand extracted from Western Sahara has been used in the Canary Islands to create or replenish beaches that support tourism and coastal development.

This creates a striking resource chain:

Western Sahara coastline → Sand extraction → Vessel → Canary Islands → Beach / tourism infrastructure

The environmental and political relationship is therefore transnational.

Why sand is environmentally important

Sand is an essential component of coastal and desert ecosystems.

Coastal sediment contributes to:

· Beach stability

· Dune formation

· Protection against erosion

· Habitat creation

· Sediment transport

Removing large quantities can interfere with natural sediment systems.

Desert and coastal vulnerability

Western Sahara is already exposed to:

· Coastal erosion

· Strong winds

· Desertification

· Climate variability

· Sea-level rise

Large-scale or poorly regulated sand extraction can add pressure to already fragile environments.

Companies and supply chains

Sand exploitation involves a chain of actors that can include:

· Extraction operators

· Transport companies

· Port operators

· Shipping companies

· Importers

· Construction companies

· Concrete producers

· Municipal authorities

· Tourism developers